1.

Selecting Tentative Topics for Empirical Research

3

  2.

Locating Literature and Refining a Research Topic

13

  3.

Preparing a Literature Review

19

  4.

Writing Research Hypotheses, Purposes, and Questions

29

  5.

Selecting a Research Approach

35

  6.

Looking Ahead to Participant Selection

45

  7.

Looking Ahead to Instrumentation

51

  8.

Looking Ahead to Data Analysis for Quantitative Research

59

  9.

Looking Ahead to Data Analysis for Qualitative Research

69

10.

Preparing a Preliminary Research Proposal

77

Part B Issues in Participant Selection

89

11.

Participant Selection in Quantitative Research

91

12.

Participant Selection in Qualitative Research

99

Part C Issues in Instrumentation

109

13.

Instrumentation in Quantitative Research

111

14.

Writing Objective Instruments

121

15.

Instrumentation in Qualitative Research

129

Part D Techniques for Data Analysis

135

16.

Descriptive Statistics for Quantitative and Qualitative Research

137

17.

Correlational Statistics for Quantitative Research

147

18.

Inferential Statistics for Quantitative Research

153

19.

A Closer Look at Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

161

Part E Conducting Experiments

169

20.

Introduction to Experimentation and Threats to External Validity

171

21.

Threats to Internal Validity and True Experiments

179

22.

Pre-Experiments and Quasi-Experiments

187

Part F Putting It Together

195

23.

Writing Reports of Empirical Research

197

Appendices

Everyday Observations As a Source of Research Topics

3

Theories As a Source of Research Topics

4

Availability of Participants and Topic Selection

5

Ethical Considerations in Topic Selection

5

The Audience's Expectations Regarding Topics

6

Personal Needs and Topic Selection

6

Published Research As a Source of Topics

6

Using Demographics to Narrow a Topic

8

Using Demographics to Make a Topic More Complex

8

Staying Open to Other Topics

9

Exercise for Chapter 1

10

Identifying Appropriate Databases

13

Using a Database Thesaurus

14

Using Boolean Operators (NOT, AND, and OR) to Refine a Search

14

Searching for Theoretical Literature

14

Searching for an Exact Phrase Match

15

Searching in Only the Title and/or Abstract Fields

15

Using a Citation Index

15

Locating Statistics at www.FedStats.gov

16

Using a Coding System When Reading the Literature

16

Considering Literature When Selecting and Refining Topics

17

Exercise for Chapter 2

17

Preparing a Table That Shows the Key Features of Each Article

19

Writing an Essay About the Literature

21

Naming a Specific Topic Near the Beginning of a Review

21

Writing a Critical Literature Review

22

Avoiding Statements of "Facts" and "Truths"

24

Pointing Out Gaps in the Literature

25

Using Subheadings in a Long Review

25

Placement of Surnames for In-Text Citations

26

Explicit Discussions of Relevant Theories

26

Relationship of the Review to the Research Questions, Purposes, or Hypotheses

26

Using the Model Literature Reviews at the End of This Book

26

Exercise for Chapter 3

27

Writing Research Hypotheses

29

Writing Research Purposes

30

Writing Research Questions

31

Identifying Populations in Research Hypotheses, Purposes, and Questions

32

Referring to Measurement Methods in Research Hypotheses, Purposes, and Questions

32

Concluding Comments

32

Exercise for Chapter 4

33

Experimental Versus Nonexperimental Research

35

Major Types of Nonexperimental Research

36

     Causal-Comparative Research

36

     Surveys

37

     Correlational Studies

38

     Document/Content-Analysis Research

39

Program Evaluation: A Hybrid

40

Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research

40

Exercise for Chapter 5

43

Determining the Number of Participants to Use

45

Random Sampling for Quantitative Research

46

Stratified Sampling for Quantitative Research

46

Convenience Sampling for Quantitative and Qualitative Research

47

Purposive Sampling for Qualitative Research

48

Using Literature When Making Plans for Participant Selection

48

Exercise for Chapter 6

49

Using Instruments Employed in Previous Research

51

Locating Existing Instruments

52

Issues in Devising New Instruments

53

Validity of Instrumentation in Quantitative Research

53

Reliability of Instrumentation in Quantitative Research

54

Credibility of Instrumentation in Qualitative Research

54

Dependability of Instrumentation in Qualitative Research

55

Exercise for Chapter 7

56

Analysis of Nominal Data

59

     Percentages

59

     Chi Square

60

Analysis of Group Differences on Interval Variables

61

     Means and Standard Deviations for One Group

61

     Means and Standard Deviations for Two or More Groups

62

     t Test for Two Means

63

     Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for More Than Two Means

63

Analysis of Change on Interval Variables

64

Analysis for the Relationship Between Two Interval Variables

65

Concluding Comments

66

Exercise for Chapter 8

66

The Intermingling of Data Collection and Data Analysis

69

Selecting a General Approach to Data Analysis

69

     The Grounded Theory Approach

70

     Consensual Qualitative Approach

71

Specific Techniques for Analysis of Qualitative Data

71

     Enumeration

71

     Selecting Quotations

72

     Intercoder Agreement

72

     Diagramming

73

     Peer Debriefing

73

     Auditing

74

     Member Checks

74

     Identifying the Range of Responses

74

     Discrepant Case Analysis

75

Exercise for Chapter 9

75

The Title of a Proposal

77

The Introduction and Literature Review

78

     The Introduction and Literature Review in Qualitative Research

79

The Method Section of a Proposal

80

     Participants

80

     Instrumentation

81

      Procedures

84

The Analysis Section of a Proposal

84

The Discussion Section of a Proposal

85

References at the End of a Proposal

86

The Major Components of a Proposal

86

Concluding Comments

87

Exercise for Chapter 10

87

Populations and Bias in Sampling

91

Simple Random Sampling

92

Stratified Random Sampling

93

Systematic Sampling

94

Cluster Sampling

95

Sample Size in Quantitative Research

95

     Potential for Harm to Participants

95

     The Need for Pilot Studies

96

     Number of Subgroups to Be Examined

96

     Exercise for Chapter 10

96

     Statistical Significance

97

     A Table of Suggested Sample Sizes

97

Exercise for Chapter 11

97

Chapter 12 Participant Selection in Qualitative Research

99

Purposive Sampling

99

     Criterion Sampling

99

     Random Purposive Sampling

100

     Typical Case Sampling

100

     Extreme or Deviant Sampling

101

     Intensity Sampling

101

     Maximum Variation Sampling

102

     Homogeneous Sampling

102

     Opportunistic Sampling

102

     Stratified Purposive Sampling

103

     Snowball Sampling

103

Combination Purposive Sampling

104

Improving Convenience Sampling

104

Sample Size in Qualitative Research

106

Exercise for Chapter 12

107

PART C ISSUES IN INSTRUMENTATION

109

Chapter 13 Instrumentation in Quantitative Research

111

Standardization and Objectivity of Instrumentation

111

Social Desirability

111

Reliability and Internal Consistency

111

     The Concept of Reliability in Measurement

111

     Test-Retest Reliability

112

     Internal Consistency

113

     Comparison of Test-Retest and Internal Consistency Methods

113

     Interobserver Reliability

114

Validity and Its Relationship to Reliability

114

Judgmental Validity

115

     Content Validity

115

     Face Validity

115

Criterion-Related Validity

116

Construct Validity

117

     Distinguishing Between Construct Validity and Criterion-Related Validity

119

Exercise for Chapter 13

119

Chapter 14 Writing Objective Instruments

121

Attitude Scales

121

     Planning an Attitude Scale

121

     Writing an Attitude Scale

122

     Pilot Testing an Attitude Scale

123

Observation Checklists

123

     Planning an Observation Checklist

123

     Writing Observation Checklists

124

     Pilot Testing an Observation Checklist

124

Achievement Tests

125

     Planning an Achievement Test

125

     Writing Achievement Test Items

125

     Pilot Testing an Achievement Test

126

Concluding Comments

126

Exercise for Chapter 14

127

Chapter 15 Instrumentation in Qualitative Research

129

Issues in Interviewer Selection and Behavior

129

    Matching Interviewers and Participants

129

     Interviewer Self-Disclosure

130

Devising Interview Protocols

130

     Semi-Structured, Open-Ended Interviews

131

     Initial Questions to Establish Rapport

131

     Using Previously Developed Interview Protocols

131

     Having Interview Protocols Reviewed

132

     Pilot Testing Interview Protocols

132

     Formulating Questions about Demographics

132

     Recording Responses and Note Taking

133

Exercise for Chapter 15

134

PART D TECHNIQUES FOR DATA ANALYSIS

135

Chapter 16 Descriptive Statistics for Quantitative and Qualitative Research

137

Describing Nominal Data

137

Describing Ordinal Data

138

Describing Ratio and Interval Data

139

     The Mean and Median

139

     The Standard Deviation and Interquartile Range

141

Exercise for Chapter 16

144

Chapter 17 Correlational Statistics for Quantitative Research

147

Describing the Strength of a Relationship

149

Exercise for Chapter 17

150

Chapter 18 Inferential Statistics for Quantitative Research

153

Margins of Error

153

The Null Hypothesis

154

The Chi Square Test

155

The t Test

156

     The t Test for Means

156

     The t Test for Correlation Coefficients

157

The F Test (ANOVA)

157

Statistical Versus Practical Significance

159

Exercise for Chapter 18

159

Chapter 19 A Closer Look at Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

161

Self-Disclosure and Bracketing in Data Analysis

161

A Closer Look at the Grounded Theory Approach

162

A Closer Look at Consensual Qualitative Approach

164

Exercise for Chapter 19

166

PART E CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS

169

Chapter 20 Introduction to Experimentation and Threats to External Validity

171

Controlling the Hawthorne Effect in Experimentation

171

Using Multiple Independent and Dependent Variables

172

External Validity of Experiments

173

     Selection Bias

173

     Reactive Effects of Experimental Arrangements

174

     Reactive Effects of Testing

175

     Exercise for Chapter 19

175

     Multiple-Treatment Interference

176

Concluding Comments about External Validity

176

Exercise for Chapter 20

176

Chapter 21 Threats to Internal Validity and True Experiments

179

History

179

     Controlling History with a True

180

Maturation

180

Instrumentation

181

Testing

181

Statistical Regression

181

Selection

182

True Experimental Designs

183

Concluding Comments

184

Exercise for Chapter 21

184

Chapter 22 Pre-Experiments and Quasi-Experiments

187

Pre-Experiments

187

Quasi-Experimental Designs

189

Concluding Comments

192

Exercise for Chapter 22

192

PART F PUTTING IT TOGETHER

195

Chapter 23 Writing Reports of Empirical Research

197

The Abstract

198

The Introduction and Literature Review

198

The Method Section

199

The Results Section

199

The Discussion Section

201

References

203

Exercise for Chapter 23

203

Appendix A Increasing the Response Rates to Mailed Surveys

205

Appendix B A Closer Look at Interpreting Correlation Coefficients

207

Appendix C Alternative Approaches to Qualitative Research

211

Appendix D An Overview of Program Evaluation

215

Appendix E Ethical Issues in Conducting Research

219